Happy Independence Day

Wishing everyone a happy and safe Independence Day.

Tall ships from around world sailed into New York Harbor in a salute to the Fourth of July and the centennial of the Statue of Liberty, July 4, 1986. Mayor Koch Photograph Collection. NYC Municipal Archives.

A flotilla of smaller boats joined tall sailing ships from around the world in New York Harbor for the centennial of the Statue of Liberty, July 4, 1986. Mayor Koch Photograph Collection. NYC Municipal Archives.

Sailors on the deck and masts of their historic sailing vessel, New York Harbor, July 4, 1986. Mayor Koch Photograph Collection. NYC Municipal Archives.

Building Coney Island’s Centerpiece – The Boardwalk

Through the ups and downs of nearly 100 years, Coney Island’s boardwalk has been the beachfront spot for untold millions to stroll, catch some sun, meet friends, munch hot dogs, or just look out at the water. And, like all big new projects in New York City, bringing the boardwalk to life hit snags and was kicked around as a political football while its cost went up and work moved more slowly than expected.

Boardwalk, Coney Island, general view looking east from Municipal Bath, July 7, 1922. Photographer: Edward E. Rutter. Borough President Brooklyn Collection. NYC Municipal Archives.

The first serious talk of building a public boardwalk came in the 1890s, when Coney Island was transitioning from a private playground for the rich – with giant fences preventing public access to the beach – to a place of fun, leisure and a little weirdness for all.

The Municipal Archives holds some 200 pictures of what was originally known as the Coney Island Boardwalk, including dozens of the construction in 1922 and 1923. Newspapers of the day, especially the old Brooklyn Daily Eagle, tell the story.

Boardwalk, Coney Island, general view, looking west from Martino’s Bath, July 7, 1922. Photographer: Edward E. Rutter. Borough President Brooklyn Collection. NYC Municipal Archives.

While the idea of a public boardwalk was debated for years, planning didn’t begin in earnest until August of 1912. The West End Improvement League, consisting of merchants and developers, launched a campaign to build the promenade, starting a local newspaper and mailing 12,000 postcards to politicians, business owners and influencers. Although there was strong public support locally, landowners along beachfront area fought the proposal bitterly and tried to find friendly lawmakers to stop it.

On October 24, 1912, the Eagle reported on the first legal salvo in the war to build a boardwalk: “State Sues to Win Back Coney Island Beach for the People,” the headline screamed. “Demands Removal of Obstructions Preventing Free Passage for Purposes of Bathing, Boating and Fishing.” The story reported that State Attorney General Thomas Carmody had filed suit against the owners of the Steeplechase Company and other landowners, claiming the beach belongs to the public and branding the fencing and barriers “a public nuisance.”

Boardwalk, Coney Island, general view showing pouring of a reinforced concrete girder, July 7, 1922. Photographer: Edward E. Rutter. Borough President Brooklyn Collection. NYC Municipal Archives.

A lawyer for the owners, claimed they had a legal right to the beachfront land and said, “…we certainly intend to fight the state’s claim to the finish.” The “finish” came rather quickly: A judge upheld the state’s claim in 1913 and the Court of Appeals affirmed it in 1916.

Political wrangling in the State Legislature delayed progress for several years, but on August 22, 1920, The Brooklyn Eagle optimistically reported: “Coney Island Boardwalk to be Completed by 1921.” Brooklyn Borough President Edward Riegelmann, an “energetic booster” of the plan had laid out details earlier that month.

Boardwalk, Coney Island, general view, looking west from Municipal Bath, August 4, 1922. Photographer: Edward E. Rutter. Borough President Brooklyn Collection. NYC Municipal Archives.

Riegelmann, who some dubbed the “Father of the Boardwalk,” said it would be 80 feet wide and two miles long running from Ocean Parkway to Sea Gate. He estimated the boardwalk would be built at a cost of $4 million (more than $50 million today). It would use 1.7 million cubic yards of sand, 110,000 tons of stone, and 7,700 cubic yards of reinforced concrete. Workers would build 16 rock jetties spaced 600 feet apart to protect the boardwalk from violent waves, while others drove 28-foot-long piles 19 feet deep into the sand. But the political wrangling continued even before the first shovel hit the ground. On Jan 6, 1921, the Eagle reported that the plan had hit “a $7 million snag,” the amount the owners claimed  they would lose in property values – perhaps the first sign that the boardwalk would not be completed in 1921.

Boardwalk, Coney Island general view, looking east from Martino's Bath, August 4, 1922. Photographer: Edward E. Rutter. Borough President Brooklyn Collection. NYC Municipal Archives.

Five months later, a fight erupted over whether to use timber or concrete for boardwalk supports. Advocates for the use of concrete argued that wood would not be “permanent” and would have to be replaced or shored up from time-to-time. Wood supporters argued that concrete was much more expensive than creosoted timber and noted that wooden trestles under the LIRR’s Jamaica route were still in good condition after many years and that the first concrete-supported Santa Monica Pier had “gone to pieces” in just a few years. Concrete won the day.

Undeterred by the delays, a long story in the July 3, 1921 edition of the Brooklyn Eagle breathlessly – though erroneously – reported: “Coney Island is to Replace Atlantic City as Society’s Playground, is Prediction.” The story began: “If the prediction of the Coney Island Boardwalk enthusiasts should be verified in the not distant future, the sad waves will murmur ‘Good night’ to Atlantic City and gently rock that out-of-date seaside resort to sleep … Good-bye hot dog; Good-bye chamber of horrors; Good-bye museums of monstrosities …”

Boardwalk, Coney Island hauling floor beams to the top of the walk by tractor, August 4, 1922. Photographer: Edward E. Rutter. Borough President Brooklyn Collection. NYC Municipal Archives.

Boardwalk construction finally began in 1922, with wooden planks in a chevron pattern atop the concrete and steel bearings. The first section, from Ocean Parkway to West 5th Street, opened to the public in October 1922. The second section, from West 5th Street to West 17th Street, opened with pomp and a ribbon-cutting on Christmas Eve of 1922 attended by Borough President Reigelmann and thousands of celebrants.

Boardwalk, Coney Island, Borough President Riegelmann opening the Boardwalk between West 5th and West, December 24, 1922. Photographer: Edward E. Rutter. Borough President Brooklyn Collection. NYC Municipal Archives.

The city held a formal opening of the entire boardwalk – which was re-named the Riegelmann Boardwalk – in May 1923. Some mildly amusing controversy continued: In June 1923, the Eagle reported that 25 people plead guilty and were fined $25 each for violating a public ordinance by strolling along “only in their bathing suits.” And that August, there were complaints that mothers were bringing their children to benches on the boardwalk to eat, leaving food scraps and refuse on the boardwalk – and that amorous couples were “spooning” on the benches.   

Boardwalk, Coney Island, looking northeast from Boardwalk, near West 12th Street, showing present character of buildings, September 6, 1922. Photographer: Edward E. Rutter. Borough President Brooklyn Collection. NYC Municipal Archives.

The boardwalk would be repaired many times over the years and, in 1938, under City Parks Commissioner Robert Moses, parts of it were expanded, straightened, and relocated 300 feet inland. He tried to expand it again into Manhattan Beach, but that plan was defeated.  

The city declared the Riegelmann Boardwalk a landmark in 2018.

San Juan Fiesta, 1979

Starting in 1952, late June in New York City has been marked every year by the San Juan Fiesta. Although the parade nominally celebrates the Catholic holiday of the Feast of Saint John, it is really a celebration of San Juan, the capital of Puerto Rico, and of Puerto Rican culture and traditions.  By the 1970s, the festival drew tens of thousands of revelers with themed floats, marching bands, an outdoor Catholic Mass, representatives from local unions, traditional food stalls and beverage company sponsorships. The Municipal Archives has recently digitized unique footage of the 1979 parade taken by the New York Police Department’s Bureau of Special Services and Investigations, a.k.a. “BOSSI”.

More than 100,000 people attended the 1979 festival and 5,000 took part in a Mass held in the Central Park band shell. Cardinal Terrence Cooke of New York and Bishop Ricardo Surinach of Ponce, Puerto Rico presided over the Spanish language service. The festivities also included open air food stalls serving piraguas and deep-fried treats like tostones, carnival games of chance, and even a piñata with candy for kids. The 1979 San Juan Fiesta sponsors hired a private sanitation company to keep the event as clean as possible, with Park Commissioner Gordon J. Davis remarking that “this is the most responsible group that uses the park.”

The parade itself featured scaled down replicas of Spanish colonial ships under command of the first Spanish governor of Puerto Rico, Ponce de Leon. Dancers in traditional costumes matched their choreography to the tunes of marching bands from local high schools ahead of the queen and princesses of the San Juan Fiesta. In addition to the Puerto Rican history and tradition celebrations, factory worker unions, New York police associations and church congregations also took part in the parade. Corporate sponsors such as Miller High Life and Pepsi even made elaborate floats and supplied drinks for many of the vendors.

The tradition of the parade began during a tumultuous period of Puerto Rico’s history. After centuries of Spanish Colonial rule, the USA invaded Puerto Rico in 1898 and imposed a military government. In 1952, the Constitution of Puerto Rico was officially ratified, and the island archipelago became an unincorporated territory of the USA. President Truman granted Puerto Ricans the right to choose their own governor for the first time in 1947, culminating in the 1948 election of Luis Muñoz Marín, who once supported independence but went on to become a proponent of the Free Associated State structure or ELA (Estado Libre Asociado). This election took place just a few months after the passage of Law 53, better known as the Gag Law. The law made it illegal to own or display the flag of Puerto Rico, sing the Puerto Rican national anthem, speak against the United States government, or write, sing or assemble in favor of Puerto Rican independence. Enforcement of the law led to the open persecution of Puerto Ricans that supported independence.

Resistance to the Gag Law, the new governor, and the American federal government was fierce. Oscar Collazo, a New York-based member of the independence-oriented Puerto Rican Nationalist Party, attempted to assassinate President Truman in 1950. He was set to be executed before his sentence was commuted to life in prison.

In 1953 alone, at the peak of migration, more than 75,000 Puerto Ricans moved from the island to New York City. In 1954, Rafael Cancel Miranda, Lolita Lebron and two other Puerto Rican nationalists opened fire in the United States Capitol, injuring several members of Congress. Denounced as terrorists by the United States government, some Puerto Ricans saw the nationalists as freedom fighters in a global wave of resistance to colonial powers after the end of World War Two.

In the 1979 NYPD BOSSI footage a parade float shows prison cells labeled ‘Miranda’ and ‘Collazo,’ advocating for their release.  A few months later, President Jimmy Carter pardoned Collazo, Miranda, Lebron and several other high profile Nationalist Party members who had served decades in prison. Years later, on June 22, 1990, Miranda joined Nelson Mandela on stage in New York City to support global efforts for self-determination.  

In addition to the San Juan Fiesta, BOSSI created photographic records of several Puerto Rican Day parades throughout the 1970s. Like the San Juan Fiesta, these parades offered both a celebration of Puerto Rican history and culture, as well as opportunities to comment on the politics and governance of Puerto Rico.

Treating the Brooklyn Bridge Drawings, Phase One

On January 17, 2020, we introduced the Municipal Archives Conservation Unit’s latest project, “Conserving Central Park and Brooklyn Bridge Plans.” Before the Archives temporarily closed in mid-March, project conservators had devised some innovative protocols for treating the oversized plans (up to 36’ in length!) in these two iconic collections.  

The project is funded by the New York State Library’s Conservation/Preservation Program. The goal is to perform the necessary treatments so that the drawings can be stabilized for improved storage, either rolled, or housed in new 7-foot long flat file drawers.

Conservator Clare Manias examines a 14-ft. Brooklyn Bridge drawing. NYC Municipal Archives.

Project conservators began with the oversize Brooklyn Bridge items. Drawings this large present a unique set of challenges. Routine treatments, transporting the drawings, photographic documentation, and use of available workspace all need to be approached differently. It became clear that we would need to think creatively to make the most efficient use of our time and workspace.

The constraints imposed by the size of the drawings means something as trivial as moving a drawing to the conservation laboratory requires three people. One person opens the doors and ensures the hallway is clear. The other two conservators load the drawings—usually 3 or 4 at a time—on a rigid foam core board which is carried by hand to the laboratory. The size of these drawings and the fact that they are currently housed in Mylar sleeves also makes them very heavy! In the laboratory they are placed on an extra-long table that can accommodate two drawings side by side. Two smaller tables that are on castors can also be pushed together to create another long table to accommodate some of the smaller drawings.

With these constraints in mind, we decided to batch our documentation photography, surface cleaning, and media testing as a “phase one” in treating the drawings. The basic “batch” process is as follows: we photograph a drawing, then while it is still in place on the table, we surface clean it, and test the solubility of the media. We also take notes on the condition of the drawing. Combining these tasks limits how often we need to transport the drawings to and from storage.

It is important to document the process of conservation treatments. Ethically, it is necessary for conservators to leave written and photographic documentation of the treatment that has been performed as a reference for future conservators. The photographic images taken during this process may be the only way for patrons to view the drawings, given their size and fragile state.

The size of these drawings required us to adopt innovative methods for the photography part of the project. Ordinarily, for small objects, a handheld camera or a camera on a copy-stand would suffice; however, these drawings are too long for that method. The majority of the drawings range between 6-to 15-feet in length and are about 2-to 3-feet wide. It is just not possible to capture the entirety of the drawing in one image, thus we shoot the recto and verso of each drawing in sections and later merge them together in Photoshop to create a panorama of the entire work. To successfully do this, we need to make sure that the images are all taken from the same angle, with the same settings, so that they will seamlessly align.

Conservator Sara Bone photographs an oversize Brooklyn Bridge drawing with the camera on the mono-stand, LED lights, and light reflection board. NYC Municipal Archives

The key piece of equipment for this type of photography is the mono-stand. The mono-stand allows the camera to be positioned about 9 feet above the floor, and the height can be adjusted, as needed.  It is also on wheels, so it can easily be moved along each section as we take pictures. Blotters covering the table surface provide a clean, consistent background for the image and help to maintain contrast against the items we are photographing. The height of the camera on the mono-stand is adjusted based on the width of the drawing. A drawing with a smaller width means the camera can be closer to the object to have it fill out the frame.  It is generally best to have the camera slightly zoomed in because when it is fully zoomed out it has a tendency to give a “fish-eye” effect, which makes stitching together the panorama more difficult.

With the camera positioned high up on the mono-stand, we need a stepladder to reach the shutter button! While there are some systems that sync the camera to a computer to remotely release the shutter, this is not possible with our setup.

Another vital piece of equipment are LED lights with softboxes that provide consistent diffuse light to ensure that the images are as accurate as possible. The overhead lights are turned off during photography because they have a warmer temperature light and do not provide even lighting. We rely primarily on the LED lights, although there is natural light that comes through the windows as well. A color bar is inserted into each of the photos so that in post-processing we can adjust the white balance and make sure the color information conveyed is accurate.

Because the drawings are placed on a table and the lights can only be positioned on one side of the table, the top edge of the drawings appear more in shadow. To aid in the way light reaches all areas of the image, we created our own light reflection board. A sheet of blotter was mounted to a rigid board and propped up on stands. When placed on the other side of the drawing on the table, this allows the light to bounce off the white blotter and reflect back onto the drawing. We move the light apparatus along with the mono-stand as we take the photographs at regular intervals, capturing every section of the drawings. Two people position the lights and reflection board while a third person is up on the stepladder taking the picture. Usually all three pairs of hands are needed to carefully flip the drawing over so the other side can be photographed.

In Photoshop, the images are adjusted for white balance and then cropped close to the borders of the drawing. The “Automate: Photomerge” function is used to automatically align the images into a panorama. Manual adjustments can then be made as needed.

Brooklyn Bridge drawing 4121-G, section. NYC Municipal Archives.

Following photography, with the drawing still out on the table, we begin the surface cleaning of both sides, using a soot sponge. The sponge lifts up the surface dirt without being too abrasive on the paper. Many drawings are so dirty that we see a dramatic difference as we clean! After surface cleaning the media is tested to see if it is water-soluble. Testing media is an important step because we need to check whether the ink is stable. We would like to wash as many of the drawings as possible to remove acids and other harmful byproducts in the paper. To test the inks and other media, we drop a small bead of water on an obscure section of the media to see whether the ink will bleed or if any lifts off when pressed with blotter.

Finally, we take notes on the condition of the drawing which completes phase one of treatment. Each drawing is then wrapped in acid-free buffered tissue and moved to temporary storage to await phase two, which will include more targeted treatments such as washing, mending, and lining. Using our batch treatment protocol we will photograph, surface clean, and media test the 78 Brooklyn Bridge drawings in an organized and efficient way.

We are looking forward to resuming the oversize drawings conservation project when the Archives re-opens. Look for updates in future blogs.

Those Boys of Summer Are Gone Again

It’s 1958 all over again.

That was the year after the Brooklyn Dodgers and New York Giants played their last games in New York City and left for the West Coast – Los Angeles and San Francisco respectively. Those storied old National League ballparks – Ebbets Field and the Polo Grounds – became ghost towns, with no teams playing in them and no fans cheering, booing, drinking beer and munching on hot dogs.

More than 35,000 baseball fans turned out to witness the Dodgers defeat both the Yankees (6-1) and the Giants (1-0) in a double header at Yankee Stadium to benefit the Civilian Defense Volunteer Office on April 14, 1943. Fiorello LaGuardia Collection. NYC Municipal Archives.

Now, 62 years later, all the ball parks across North America, from Boston to San Diego, are ghost towns – victims of the coronavirus, COVID-19, that has scratched at least the first half of the baseball season. There were tentative plans to start the season in July, but many details – big and small – must still be worked out.

But a trip through the Municipal Archives digital galleries brings back those sweet memories of the 1955 Brooklyn Dodgers – “The Boys of Summer” Roger Kahn wrote about, and the rival New York Giants. The Yankees were the only game in town from 1957 through 1961, depriving at least two-thirds of all New York baseball fans of a team to root for.

Now, even Yankee Stadium is quiet in this Summer of Covid-19.

Mr. and Mrs. Babe Ruth (center) and Kate Smith (lower left) at the 1936 World Series (Yankees vs. Giants) at the Polo Grounds. WPA Federal Writers’ Project Collection. NYC Municipal Archives.

The Dodgers and Giants rivalry dates back to the 1880s. They first faced each other in the 1889 World Series, when the Giants, based in Manhattan, played against a Dodgers’ forerunner, the Bridegrooms from Brooklyn. It was an inter-city rivalry — Brooklyn and New York City were separate cities at the time. The Giants, who played in the Polo Grounds, took the best-of-11 series, six games to three from Brooklyn, which played in the old Washington Park near the Gowanus Canal.

Charles Ebbets eventually accumulated 80 percent ownership of the Dodgers and built Ebbets Field at a cost of $775,000 ($19.4 million in today’s dollars) in 1912. The new stadium hosted its first game in April 1913.

Ebbets Field, plot plan, New building application,1912, Department of Buildings (Brooklyn) Collection. NYC Municipal Archives.

Ebbets Field, Cedar Place elevation. New building application,1912, Department of Buildings (Brooklyn) Collection. NYC Municipal Archives.

Ebbets Field, Second tier plan, New building application,1912, Department of Buildings (Brooklyn) Collection. NYC Municipal Archives.

The team, known lovingly as “Dem Bums,” had its share of characters in the 1930s, including Dazzy Vance, Babe Herman and Chick Fewster, who somehow once all ended up up on third base at the same time. Two were called out in one of baseball’s wackiest plays.

They also had some of the most loyal fans who stuck with them despite losing five of six World Series matchups with the Yankees between 1941 and 1956 – and their collapse in 1951 when they blew a 14-game lead to the Giants and lost the pennant race on Bobby Thompson’s homer known as the “Shot Heard ‘Round the World.”

Ebbets Field, Brooklyn. 1940 Tax Photograph Collection. NYC Municipal Archives.

In the late 1940s, when Brooklyn had a growing African-American population, General Manager Branch Rickey broke the game’s color barrier by signing Jackie Robinson, who overcame discrimination, segregation and vicious taunting by opposing players and fans in other cities, to become the first black Major League Baseball player and Rookie of the Year in in 1947. He later led the Dodgers to their only World Series championship in 1955. (No one counts the 1889 win as a Dodger victory since they were then called the Bridegrooms, ostensibly because about a half dozen of their players got married in 1888).

Polo Grounds, Field and Lower Grandstand plan. NYC Municipal Archives.

Then the seemingly impossible happened – owner Walter O’Malley decided to move the beloved Bums to Los Angeles after a rancorous fight with the city and its imperious Parks Commissioner, Robert Moses, over building the Dodgers a new ballpark to replace the deteriorating Ebbets Field.

The Municipal Archives contains letters, telegrams, and pleas, mostly from Brooklynites, to build the Dodgers a new stadium at Atlantic and Flatbush Avenues – all for naught. The Dodgers played their last game at Ebbets Field on September 24, 1957, beating the Pittsburgh Pirates 2-0 in front of a paltry crowd of just 6,700 fans. The stadium’s capacity was about 30,000 at the time every game was nearly sold out during the Dodgers’ heyday.  

At the same time, the Giants, who played in the Polo Grounds since 1885, were also planning to go westward. The team, known as the Gothams from 1883 to 1885, fielded some powerhouse teams winning a handful of pennants and World Series matchups in the early 1900s and then again in the 1930s through 1954.

Baseball teams composed of active members of the New York City Police, Fire, and Sanitation Departments drew crowds to the Polo Grounds stadium in the late 1930s. The New York Police Department vs. the Sanitation Department, September 17, 1939. New York Police Department Collection. NYC Municipal Archives.

During those years, fans filled the stands to root for such as stars as Mel Ott, Carl Hubbell, Bill Terry, Bobby Thomson, Sal Maglie and Willie Mays, who made a nearly impossible over-the-shoulder catch of a Vic Wertz blast to deepest center field of the Polo Grounds – some 470 feet from home plate – during the 1954 World Series between the Giants and the Cleveland Indians.

The Polo Grounds also hosted games between city police, fire, and sanitation teams for many years when the Giants were out of town – as well as Negro League games. In 1941, the Dodgers, Giants and Yankees played a double header “City Championship” game at Yankee Stadium, offering 50,000 tickets at $1.10 apiece.

The New York Police Department vs. the Fire Department, Polo Grounds, June 11, 1938. New York Police Department Collection. NYC Municipal Archives.

But in 1957, Giants owner Horace Stoneham joined forces with O’Malley and went to California seeking a second Gold Rush. The Giants played their last game at the Polo Grounds on Sept. 29, 1957, losing to Pittsburgh 9-1.

Collegiate football at the Polo Grounds. Texas A. & M. vs. Manhattan College, October 1937. WPA Federal Writers’ Project Collection. NYC Municipal Archives.

Like Ebbets Field, the Polo Grounds went quiet for baseball. For Ebbets Field and the Dodgers,the quiet was  permanent. The stadium was demolished in 1960 and replaced by a huge housing complex known as the Ebbets Field Apartments; the only remnant of the baseball stadium is a plaque.

The Polo Grounds, which had hosted many football games over the years, went quiet for baseball until the New York Mets were founded in 1963: They played their first two hapless seasons there while Shea Stadium was being built. The Polo Grounds, home of the old American Football League’s New York Titans in the early 1960s, hosted its last-ever game in September 1963. It was torn down the following year to be replaced by a giant – pardon the pun – housing complex. All that remains is a huge old staircase that led from Coogan’s Bluff downhill to the stadium.

Mayor LaGuardia stands by while New York State Governor Herbert Lehman prepares to throw out the first ball for the first game of the 1936 World Series (Yankees vs. Giants) at the Polo Grounds, September 30, 1936. (Negative damaged.) WPA Federal Writers’ Project Collection. NYC Municipal Archives.

And, now in the Spring and Summer of 2020 the ballparks of New York – Citi Field and a new Yankee Stadium – are once again quiet. The Boys of Summer are gone once again.

Spectators enjoy the 1936 World Series ( Yankees vs. Giants) at the Polo Grounds, 1936. WPA Federal Writer’s Project Collection. NYC Municipal Archives.

There are no fans roaring like they did when Willie Mays robbed Vic Wertz at the Polo Grounds; no wild cheers as when Gil Hodges — tied the then-record for most National League grand slams in early September 1957 at Ebbets Field. Things just won’t be the same until a Major League umpire cries out “Play Ball,” in a stadium that, for at least a while, won’t have any fans in attendance, no kids to chase after balls in the stands and no smell of hot dogs and beer.

Every baseball fan in America is waiting.

From Health Officer of the Port to Disease Detectives: Public Health Workers in New York City

More than 250 years ago, the sole responsibility of New York City's first public health workers, as they could be called, was keeping disease out of the city. It is a function essential to a rapidly-growing metropolis. Centuries later, we are again face-to-face with it, even as New York in 2020 bears almost no resemblance to the port city at the lower tip of Manhattan it once was.

Until the late 19th century, the role of public health was largely to react to outbreaks of diseases such as cholera and yellow fever. A Health Officer of the Port enforced the quarantining of ships coming into New York Harbor when there was a known or suspected contagion.

Group portrait of 17 sanitary inspectors, 1870-1873. NYC Municipal Archives.

In 1805, a designated board of the mayor and legislators was tasked with overseeing the health of city residents. Officials kept increasingly robust counts of the dead in an attempt to stem these diseases. The city's sanitary inspectors, part of the nascent Board of Health, worked to ensure the streets were free of garbage and rotting animals and vacant lots were unsoiled.

The population of Manhattan skyrocketed mid-century with the arrival of Irish and German immigrants, more than doubling the population between 1840 and 1860. Yearly outbreaks of cholera were exacerbated by tightly-packed housing quarters where these newcomers resided in neighborhoods such as the Five Points. Efforts to manage the health of the population became a more pressing issue for city government.

Aerial view of Hoffman Island, off Staten Island, once used to quarantine incoming immigrants, circa 1934-1945. Mayor LaGuardia Collection. NYC Municipal Archives.

The state created a new board of professionals to oversee health in New York City and its immediate surrounding areas in 1866. This was followed by a full-fledged Department of Health, staffed by doctors and other professionals in 1870. New York City opened the first city-controlled diagnostic laboratory in 1892, employing bacteriologists who mitigated outbreaks of infectious diseases over the years through testing and producing antitoxins and vaccines. The city’s public health lab continues this work to this day.

Additional waves of immigrants from eastern and southern Europe around the turn of the century and reforms in the social, educational and labor realms ushered in the public health nursing movement. In 1902, the New York City Department of Health created the first public health nursing program in the country. City nurses were installed at schools and paid home visits to millions of families and new mothers to tackle high infant mortality rates. Baby health stations popped up around the five boroughs. Public health nurses advised and examined pregnant women and mothers of young children, gave referrals, instruction on early child care and breast-feeding, information about access to city services and provided low-cost, quality milk.

Nurse visiting patient, possibly with tuberculosis, in tenement apartment, ca. 1910. Department of Public Charities Collection. NYC Municipal Archives.

Fleet of “healthmobiles” employed by the Department of Health in the late 1920s to promote information about diphtheria and offer free toxin-antitoxins. NYC Municipal Archives.

Through the Great Depression to the post-World War II years, federal and private money funded an expansion of health services. Physicians and nurses staffed new district health centers. More food inspectors examined more establishments. And the city increased resources focusing on child health by bringing dentistry into the fold of city services.

Mayor Fiorello La Guardia with Department of Health Commissioner John Rice touting the plunging city death rate to under 10 per 1,000 of population for the first time, 1939. Mayor LaGuardia Collection. NYC Municipal Archives.

Baby Health Station under elevated tracks at Gun Hill Road and White Plains Road, Bronx, circa 1940s. NYC Municipal Archives.

The Department of Health struggled and contracted under Mayor John Lindsay’s superagency reorganization plan and subsequent economic crisis of the 1970s only to take on renewed importance when HIV appeared and devastated the city. The city was able to secure outside funds to bolster staff and much-needed tracing, research and outreach programs. City health workers continued the uphill fight against HIV/AIDS on a community basis. They tackled tuberculosis outbreaks and lead poisoning among vulnerable populations into the 2000s.

Technicians at work in a Department of Health laboratory, circa 1940s. NYC Municipal Archives.

As the city launches its contact tracing and testing program for Covid-19, it is important to remember this work has a history in New York City. During the first decades of the 20th century, the Department of Health’s Dr. Josephine Baker was instrumental in tracking down asymptomatic carrier “Typhoid Mary” Mallon. Department employees, sometimes with the help of volunteers, have used detective methods of sorts to track, refer and follow up on cases of tuberculosis, venereal diseases and later, HIV/AIDS. At the threat of a smallpox outbreak in 1947, city health workers and volunteers vaccinated an astonishing 6.3 million New Yorkers in a month! In 1978, staff epidemiologists tracked the source of the city’s first outbreak of Legionnaires Disease.

The city continues to disperse health workers to New Yorkers’ homes, schools, restaurants and other businesses to monitor the city’s health on numerous fronts. Providing direction for New Yorkers coping with the Covid-19 pandemic is the latest example of the city’s public health workers fulfilling a centuries-old imperative.